Religious-based bullying and cyber-discrimination in higher education: insights from European research

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This blog was kindly authored by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eleni Meletiadou, GSBL, London Metropolitan University, PFHEA, NTF, UTF, MCIPD, MIIE.

Higher education in Europe is increasingly diverse. Students bring a wealth of linguistic, cultural, and religious backgrounds, enriching learning environments and preparing graduates for global societies. Yet, my research shows that religious identity remains a blind spot in institutional inclusion strategies. Students often experience bullying or discrimination related to religion, both offline and online, but policies, staff training, and support frameworks frequently fail to address these issues comprehensively.

My project, Developing a European Framework to Combat Religion-Based Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Discrimination: Promoting Wellbeing, Inclusion, and Democratic Resilience in Educational Institutions, has worked in collaboration with international partners to identify patterns, impacts, and solutions. This initiative aligns closely with my role in COST Action CA23120, as a Working Group member and Project Lead, which investigates the interplay between social media, digital platforms, and student wellbeing. Through this work, I have gained evidence-based insights into what truly supports inclusion and what institutional strategies often miss.

Why religious-based bullying matters in higher education

Religion-based bullying encompasses stereotyping, exclusion, verbal abuse, offensive humour, and harassment linked to practices, dress, or identity. These experiences often intersect with ethnicity, migration, and language, creating compound marginalisation. In digital spaces, the impact is intensified. Online harassment spreads rapidly, can be persistent, and may reach a wide audience. Students report feeling unsafe in digital peer interactions, which can reduce participation, engagement, and well-being. Yet, despite legal frameworks such as the Equality Act 2010 and guidance from bodies like the Office for Students, religious discrimination remains underrepresented in university policies and staff development programmes.

Key insights from our study and framework

My mixed-methods research, conducted across multiple European universities, reveals several important findings:

1. Students’ voices highlight gaps in institutional support.
   Interviews and surveys showed that students experiencing religious-based bullying often do not report incidents because they fear misunderstanding or inaction. Many digital platforms, including learning management systems and social media, become spaces where harassment persists without intervention.
2. Intersectional vulnerabilities amplify impact.
   Students facing overlapping marginalisation, religion, ethnicity, and language experienced higher levels of stress, isolation, and academic disengagement.
3. Staff awareness and training are inconsistent.
   Even when policies exist, staff often feel ill-equipped to address religious bullying, especially in online contexts. This aligns with findings from the CA23120, highlighting the critical role of educator understanding in shaping digital wellbeing.
4. Inclusive digital practices increase safety and engagement.
   When universities introduced structured dialogue spaces, interfaith workshops, and moderated online forums, students reported higher feelings of belonging and trust.
5. Framework application shows measurable benefits.
   Using narrative mapping, we tracked students’ experiences before and after framework-informed interventions. Findings indicate:
   • Reduced anxiety in online discussions
   • Increased reporting and peer support
   • Greater participation in collaborative learning
   • Enhanced digital and civic literacy

Policy and practice recommendations

Based on my study and CA23120 insights, UK universities can implement evidence-informed strategies to combat religious-based bullying:

Integrate Religious Inclusion into Policies

• Explicitly include religious discrimination in anti-bullying and harassment policies.
• Ensure policies address both offline and online behaviour, covering digital learning spaces, forums, and social media associated with the institution.

Embed staff training and awareness

• Develop mandatory professional development focused on religious literacy, intercultural understanding, and online moderation.
• Train staff to recognise subtle forms of harassment and respond in ways that affirm student dignity.

Promote structured dialogue and safe spaces

• Facilitate interfaith dialogues, moderated discussion groups, and collaborative projects.
• Use digital tools to support inclusive participation, ensuring anonymity where appropriate to encourage reporting and engagement.

Enhance digital citizenship education

• Include modules that teach responsible online behaviour, critical engagement with digital content, and awareness of how online platforms can amplify bias and harassment.
• Leverage insights from COST Action CA23120 to co-design interventions with students, ensuring relevance and cultural sensitivity.

Monitor, evaluate, and co-create

• Collect data on incidents, participation, and student experiences to continuously improve interventions.
• Engage student representatives in co-creating solutions, reinforcing a sense of ownership and empowerment.

Linking research to COST Action CA23120

Working within COST Action CA23120 allowed me to situate religion-based bullying within broader digital wellbeing frameworks:

• Digital platform analysis informed where and how harassment occurs.
• Narrative mapping techniques captured nuanced student experiences, highlighting intersectional vulnerabilities.
• Insights from CA23120 on inclusion, social media, and AI literacy reinforced the importance of co-creation, dialogue, and structured support.

This integration demonstrates that religious inclusion is inseparable from broader strategies addressing digital inequality and student wellbeing, ensuring interventions are both comprehensive and sustainable.

Conclusion: from reactive to proactive inclusion

Religion-based bullying is not a marginal issue; it is central to equity, inclusion, and democratic resilience in higher education.

My research and framework demonstrate that universities can actively reduce harm and strengthen belonging through:

• Clear policies recognising religious discrimination
• Inclusive staff development and awareness
• Structured dialogue and co-created interventions
• Digital citizenship and online ethics education

By implementing these strategies, universities protect students and fulfil their mission: preparing graduates for a pluralistic, democratic society.

Addressing religious-based bullying requires intentional, proactive strategies that combine inclusive pedagogy, digital literacy, and institutional leadership. If universities fail to act, digital spaces risk perpetuating exclusion rather than supporting learning and social cohesion.